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Table of contents
- Skank in Maldegem Prostitutes Flanders Prostitutes Maldegem
- Belgian heroes by Visit Wallonia - Issuu
- Introduction
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About us. Stay updated. Corporate Social Responsiblity. Investor Relations. Review a Brill Book. Making Sense of Illustrated Handwritten Archives. The Low Countries, a region comprising modern-day Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of eastern Germany and northern France, offers a remarkable laboratory for the study of early modern religion, politics, and culture.
Under the domain of the Hapsburg empire from and allocated to the Spanish crown when Holy Roman Emperor Charles V abdicated in , the Low Countries were highly urbanized, literate, and cosmopolitan, and their cities were among the most important trade centers in Northern Europe. This marked the start of the Eighty Years War. As war waged on for another six decades the South saw a wave of Catholic revival while Reformed evangelism flourished in the new Dutch Republic, entrenching a religious and political divide that slowly crushed the dreams of those hoping to reunite the Low Countries.
The Italian humanist Ludovico Guicciardini, for example, remarked in on the ubiquitous presence of women in the Antwerp markets, condemning the practice of women buying and selling goods as corrupting to female virtue and recording his surprise that Antwerpians had no problem with the situation. Because of its particular history, the Low Countries thus offers unique opportunities to investigate the impact of the dramatic religious and political shifts that shaped sixteenth- and seventeenth- century Europe while controlling — to some extent — for underlying cultural differences, as well as abundant sources for the study of early modern women.
The historical scholarship on the Low Countries before the Revolt covering the period from the rapid urbanization in the High Middle Ages through the first half of the sixteenth century constitutes a varied and dynamic body of literature, in which Dutch, Belgian, and international scholars engage in vibrant discussions.
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Prominent within this research are studies of women, in particular nuns, beguines and mystics, as well as laywomen and their roles in the social fabric of cities. Kittel and Mary A. The first two have been celebrated in major exhibitions, with catalogues published in several languages, and all have been the subject of books and articles. But from the mid-sixteenth century onwards the scholarship begins to diverge, with work on the early modern Northern Low Countries typically done by Dutch scholars and work on the South by Belgians.
They tend to operate within separate scholarly spheres though there are important exceptions , and trends in early modern studies, and of women within that framework, have thus evolved fairly independently on either side of the border. Furthermore, among the foreign early modernists who study the region — and have the language skills to both research in Dutch sources and publish in English for a broader audience — far more gravitate towards the independent, Protestant Northern United Provinces than the Spanish-controlled Catholic South.
The North is thus better known internationally, while a language barrier has reduced opportunities for methodological cross-pollination in the study of the South. We here sketch out the broad trends and lacunae in the scholarship as it relates to women and gender on each side of the border. Representations of women have also featured prominently in Dutch art history, owing in part to the seventeenth-century popularity of the painted domestic interiors and satirical genre scenes that prominently feature wives and female servants at work and at leisure.
It is now a commonplace in the field that the women in these images played moralizing roles, standing either for the virtue of a well-run household and orderly Dutch society in general, or the dangers of moral corruption. Exhibitions have also been dedicated to the portrait and genre painter Judith Leyster and to Maria Sibylla Merian, the most important producer of entomological illustrations in the seventeenth century.
In spite of these many important studies, large clefts remain. Historian Susan Broomhall has made important first steps by studying the roles of Orange-Nassau women in dynastic expansion, in architectural and horticultural design, curiosity cabinets, gift-giving, letter exchange, art, and ritual, and some work has been done on Amalia van Solms as a patron, but women of the social strata below the court have been largely ignored. Scholarship on early modern English women provides a model for expanding in this area.
Is it possible to demonstrate that many books once thought to have been written for men were for women, as Margaret Ezell has shown is true for many popular English advice books? Within the international debates on early modern women and gender the Southern Low Countries are far less well-represented than are the Northern — at least for the period beginning with the Dutch Revolt in the s. This is due in part to the language issues and relative lack of interest from foreign scholars mentioned above but also to the fact that much of the Belgian research on early modern women has been published in small runs and local journals that can be difficult to access outside of the country.
In contrast to the Dutch situation, the largest subset of scholarship on Southern women deals with their religious participation. This stems largely from a long-standing tradition of Catholic institutional history now largely continued by archivists that counts comprehensive studies of monastic orders and individual communities, as well as local congregations, as fundamental. The archduchess Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, who governed the Southern Low Countries from to jointly with her husband Albert until his death in is, like her Hapsburg women predecessors, certainly the most well-studied individual woman of her age in this region, though quite a bit of work on her remains to be done.
We lack the kinds of monographs on their experiences of marriage, economic activities, and social roles that we see for the pre-Revolt period and for the Dutch Republic. This is rather curious, for the history departments of the universities of Antwerp, Leuven, and Ghent all have multiple senior early modern scholars whose work currently drives a remarkably strong tradition of local economic and social history.
But while a number of these researchers do include women in their work when they come up, none maintains a focus on women or on gender history as a practice. Many of their texts are excellent, but as they have tended to be published in less prominent venues or not at all it is only very recently, with the increasing access offered by digitization and greater emphasis on publishing in English, that they have started to enter the broader conversations on early modern women.
The anthologies of and mentioned above represent important efforts to break this ontological glass ceiling, but have only very recently, in the context of a new wave of public interest in feminism and gender, been followed up with new work on Flemish women artists.
At the time of writing August the second monographic exhibition on an early modern Flemish woman artist, Michaelina Wautier, is currently on show at the MAS in Antwerp. We hope that this momentum will continue to build and that we will see more work on female artists in the South, and that these women will be integrated into the wider narratives of Flemish Art History.
At the same time we would also push for an expansion of methodological approaches beyond the focus on the creative side. In terms of dealing with femininity and gender as formed, reflected, and negotiated by images, very little work has been done for the South. The present volume begins to close some of these gaps and to showcase the enormous potential for new research on early modern Low Countries women.
The Reformation and Counter Reformation fundamentally structured life and identities in the Low Countries in our period, and this religious strife forms the backdrop for all of our studies but is more directly addressed by some authors than by others. Taken together these essays also offer a window onto the experiences of both Catholic and Protestant women — and men — forced to flee during the Revolt religious persecution and settle abroad the Houtappels fled to Italy and Germany while the Teellinck family members moved to the Northern provinces and to England.
They further allow us to see the spread of religious ideas across national boundaries as Teellinck modeled her work on the French confession of faith adopted by the Dutch Reformed Church in Emden, Germany, and as the Jesuits in the Southern Low Countries negotiated with Roman authorities over notions of decorum and luxury in the decoration of devotional spaces.
Many of our authors address the theme of women as cultural creators and interrogate how their gendered social positions, as well as their political contexts, shaped their output. The representation of women and gender, in text and in image, is also a major theme across our contributions.
Introduction
Diane Wolfthal, by contrast, deals with artistic depictions of servants. Wolfthal traces shifting patterns in these portrayals in the Low Countries and questions how gender and servitude intersect through them, offering a broad and nuanced overview of these depictions. Like Peacock, Wolfthal takes historiographical issues head-on, pointing out that while the cumulative effects of classism and ageism over time have effectively rendered painted servants invisible to modern-day researchers, in the early modern period their status both in society and in visual culture was complex and deserves our attention.
Some, like Reformed evangelist Cornelia Teellinck, painter Anna Francisca de Bruyns, and playwrights Catharina Questiers and Catharina Verwers, stepped into the normally masculine-coded, public spheres of religious evangelism and the creative professions. Morton and P. Collins, eds. Century ChartersJ S. Chiaroscurro ChiltonB J. Choron and F. Cobblestone CohenE A. Columbia Com. Commodore Conc. Concord ConnorBG D. Cotillion CoussemakerS C. Day and E. Vieira, ed. Dichter and E. Dodd, ed. Electrola Elek. Elektra Elek. Lavignac and L. Feather and I.
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